by Viktor POPOV, Cand. Sc. (Chem.), National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute" (Moscow)

In 2013 Akademizdattsentr Nauka, RAS, will complete publication of the 5-volume Collection of scientific works of Acad. Anatoly Alexandrov. It is implemented on the basis of a joint decision of the Russian Academy of Sciences, RF Federal Agency for Atomic Energy (today the state corporation Rosatom) and Russian scientific center "Kurchatov Institute" (today National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute") of August 2004. Materials for publication are prepared by staff members of Kurchatov Institute and Rosatom. The editorial board is headed by RAS president, Acad. Yuri Osipov and his deputies Acad. Boris Myasoedov and RAS Corresponding Member Viktor Sidorenko.

Scientific activity of Anatoly Alexandrov, which lasted for more than 60 years, involved a number of disciplines: nuclear and molecular physics, physics of solids and physics of polymers, as well as various fields of technology. Due to a unique combination of the scientist's talents, an engineer and an organizer, he received universal recognition as a leader of the biggest teams that guaranteed solution of important and topical practical tasks in atomic science and technology.

When studies of his works began, enormous scientific heritage of Alexandrov had not been collected and systematized. The collections Nuclear Energy and Scientific-Technical Progress (1978) and Science for the Country (1983), issued by Nauka Publishers, contained his articles and speeches, mainly, in mass media, on general problems of development of atomic power engineering, science and technology, organization of scientific research in the USSR. They practically did not tell anything about his pre-war works at Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute (LFTI), did not reflect his contribution to the fulfillment of tasks of uranium project in 1940s-1950s, creation of national atomic fleet and nuclear power engineering in the country.

The work on the creation of the 5-volume collection began in the first half of 2004 from collecting of publications in journals and collections, accounts, reports at meetings, articles in the press, speeches at public and political forums, documentary sources.

The greater part of the scientist's heritage was for a long time kept in closed funds (and a considerable part is still there). So, there was organized an expert examination of these materials for further declassification was carried out search and selection of documents in open archives, earlier known only to a small number of specialists. Hence a significant number of the scientist's works, first published in the present Collection.

The first volume of Physics of Solids. Physics of Polymers (editor-in-chief Acad. Zhores Alferov), including works of Alexandrov, written mainly in the pre-war period at LFTI and published in different editions in 1932-1945, and his doctoral thesis (1941), came out in 2006. They embrace three main trends: mechanical strength of solids, electrical strength of dielectrics and physics of polymers.

In 1930, Acad. Abram Ioffe offered Alexandrov to devote himself to the fundamental problem of mechanical strength of solids. Together with his first student Serafim Zhurkov (later on an academician, founder of kinetic teaching on the failure of solids) he studied the strength of quartz and silicate glasses. The results of these studies, described in the articles "Phenomena of Friable Breakage" (1933), "The Phenomenon of Breakage of Gauge-Glasses and Ways of Increasing Their Strength" (1937), "On Friability" (1944), "Mechanical Properties of Solids. Friability and Mechanism of Friable Breakage" (1944), included in the first volume, had important stimulating significance in forming of general problem of the strength of materials. Alexan-drov's contribution to its elaboration has great significance as the tasts of increasing mechanical strength of materials remain topical and moreover, their topicality is only strengthening in connection with the requirements of developing technology (from microelemental to cosmic).

The interests of the Physico-Technical Institute also involved a problem of electrical strength of dielectrics (break-down in case of electrical tension). The first publications on this subject appeared in the 1920s. Among them was the work of Abram Ioffe, Igor Kurcha-tov and Kirill Sinelnikov (1927), describing a rather interesting effect: on reducing the thickness of dielectric films (glass, mica) to 1-2 um, the value of breaking down tension of the electrical field abruptly (by more than an order of magnitude greater) increased and reached extremely high values--up to 2 GV/m and more. It is natural that Ioffe decided to create compact condensers with an enormous capacitor.

In Kiev (before moving to Leningrad) Alexandrov together with Vladimir Tuchkevich studied conductivity of dielectrics. This allowed him at the Phystech to examine such a tempting effect of electrical strengthening as a researcher with a certain experience. Besides, it can be stated that the problems of electrical strength were in keeping with a subject entrusted to him at LFTI.

The proposed physical explanations of the effect (for example, impossibility of development of impact ionization on a short length due to a small thickness of the film), Alexandrov regarded as unconvincing. He paid attention to a simple possible source of getting too high values of breaking strength--wrong assessment of film thickness--and demonstrated, the used method through determination of a capacitor in a category of condenser is wrong and is connected with electrical conduction of elements of the measuring system and polarization phenomena.

We should stress Alexandrov's courage, then a young staff member of the Physico-Technical Institute, when he entered into polemics and disputed his point of view with such an authority as Acad. Ioffe.

We must do justice to Acad. Ioffe too, who agreed (of course, without delight) with fair criticism and in an article, written together with Alexandrov "About Electrical Strength of Fine Films" (1932), he admitted his mistakes, explained their origin and arrived at correct understanding of electrical strength of fine dielectric films. Henceforth Ioffe highly assessed Alexandrov's qualities as a scientist and man.

A number of works implemented under guidance of Alexandrov at the Physico-Technical Institute on electric conduction of dielectrics and ionization in them opened interesting and important details of electrical processes. The results of these studies were published by

Alexandrov in co-authorship in 1934 in the articles "On Ionization by Collision in Solid Dielectrics", "On Electric Conduction of Homeopolar Compounds", "On Temperature Dissociation in Liquid Dielectrics", included, as the above-mentioned work with Ioffe, into the first volume of the Collection. Here the reader can also find the chapter "Electric Conduction of Dielectrics", written by Alexandrov, from the monograph Physics of Dielectrics (edited by professor Alexander Valter), published in 1932 at the State Technico-Theo-retical Publishing House, dealing with fundamental problems of electrical strength of dielectrics, a note in the Journal of Technical Physics (1938) on the meeting on insulation, and also an article, translated from English, "Problems of Technical Physics at Leningrad Phy-sico-Technical Institute" ("Technical Physics", 1937, No. 11/12) with a review of the main achievements in this sphere.

The significant place in the first volume are occupied by Alexandrov's works on physics of polymers, giving bases to recognize him as one of the founders of this trend. It is not accidental that in 1983, the USSR Academy of Sciences granted him a prize named after A. Ioffe for fundamental studies in this sphere.

The results of Alexandrov's works on polymers, achieved at the Physico-Technical Institute in the

1930s-1940s, are reflected in his doctoral thesis "Relaxation in Polymers", as well as in seven other publications, issued up to 1945. All of them are included in the first volume of the Collection.

In 2010, there was published the second volume Physi-co-Technical Problems of the USSR Atomic Project (editor-in-chief RAS Corresponding Member Viktor Sido-renko) including works of 1946-1955 (Institute of Physical Problems, USSR AS, Laboratory No. 2, USSR AS), reflecting Alexandrov's contribution to thermodiffusion separation of isotopes, receiving of nuclear materials (deuterium and tritium), development of technology of atomic reactors, creation of measuring devices and technical means for experiments.

Especially interesting are his works in the sphere of thermodiffusion separation of uranium isotopes in UF₆ liquid phase. Alexandrov and his colleagues not only laid theoretical bases of the method, studied physical processes, carried on in thermodiffusion columns, but also proposed devices for work with uranium hexafluoride in production conditions, assessing power expenses to create a product of the planned extent of concentration. All materials on this subject and a greater part of articles, included in other thematic sections of the volume, are published for the first time.

The part, rich in content, is made up of letters and notes (1946-1955), addressed to the leadership of the country and atomic industry, mainly concerning construction of various designation nuclear reactors. They were declassified in 1990-2009 and published in the collection The USSR Atomic Project: Documents and Materials: in 3 vol./Under gen. edit. of L. Ryabev. In the supplement to the second volume--texts of organizing documents of the USSR government bodies, having a direct relation to the activity of the scientist at that period of time.

The scientist joined the atomic project in late 1943 on Kurchatov's proposal. At that time together with the staff members of his laboratory, from 1941 in evacuation in Kazan, he carried out the first experiments in thermal diffusion separation of isotopes. Works were implemented on model substances, but already in 1944, on return-

ing to Leningrad, they became rather intensive. The leading industrial enterprises of the city participated in the production of required devices.

The experiments carried out by Alexandrov and his colleagues demonstrated a principal possibility and technical feasibility of thermodiffusion separation of uranium isotopes. They experimentally determined basic parameters of the semi-production unit, proposed convenient methods of measuring concentrations of uranium-235 (uranium-234 according to activity), selected materials, fit for use in UF₆ medium. The results were included in the 1946 report, published in the second volume.

Back in 1945 Kurchatov already proposed to essentially expand works on thermal diffusion and their transfer to Moscow. But Alexandrov's laboratory moved to the capital in late 1946. It was preceded by very important events. August 17, 1946, can be regarded as a starting point. On this day, by the resolution of the USSR Council of Ministers (published in the supplement) Alexandrov was appointed director of the Institute of Physical Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences (IFP) instead of Academician Pyotr Kapitsa, who fell into disgrace of the country's political leadership. From September 23, 1946, when at the meeting of the Scientific-Technical Council of the First Main Department (PGU) under the USSR Council of Ministers, according to Alexandrov's repot there was approved a plan of works of the institute for the first quarter of 1947, he began to officially cooperate with the atomic department of the country. A year later he became a member of the Scientific-Technical Council under PGU.

The Institute of Physical Problems, according to the approved plan, started enrichment of uranium by the thermodiffusion method in UF₆ liquid phase and getting deuterium under a low temperature through rectification (from Latin rectiflcatio--straightening, adjustment) of liquid hydrogen. In late 1946, a semi-production thermodiffusion unit started functioning in Moscow. But soon it became evident that this method for isotope separation was not sufficiently effective and was extremely energy-consuming. The second volume includes the institute's reports of 1947-1948 on this subject, which are published for the first time.

In spite of the practically negative result--a reliable proof of low efficiency of the method for isotope enrichment of uranium, studies of thermodiffusion were highly appreciated by the leadership of the atomic project, and the participants were granted a prestigious prize of the president of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Practically at the same time, Alexandrov worked on another pressing task--elaboration of a method of getting deuterium by means of rectification of liquid hydrogen, realizing the idea of Kapitsa. The information on some results concerning this subject, published in the second volume, prepared by him in April of 1947 for a report to the Special Committee, gives an idea of basic scientific and technical problems, solved by the Institute of Physical Problems to confirm a possibility of deuterium extraction by this method and to get "all data for designing production separating devices".

Later on such plant was commissioned, and founders of the method, including Alexandrov, in 1955 were recommended for the USSR State Prize. Alexandrov, in September of 1948, appointed to a post of deputy director of Laboratory No. 2 (from 1949--Laboratory of Measuring Instruments of the USSR AS--LIPAN) and

from that time IFP head too, was already working with Kurchatov. Therefore, he was informed about the award on the phone by Kapitsa, who had been reinstated as director of the Institute of Physical problems after Stalin's death. However, Alexandrov asked to cross out his name from the list. Later it became known that Kapitsa had done the same. Since then their relations were kind and friendly. Moreover, on returning to the institute after the 7-year absence, Kapitsa saw that the scientific projects begun in his time were still in progress, the units preserved, the staff members were still working in the habitual conditions.

Even before Alexandrov's appearance at Laboratory No. 2, Kurchatov invited him and IFP staff members to take part in certain projects within the framework of the program of creating of nuclear and then thermonuclear weapons. Here we must mention, in particular, works on getting tritium. The section "Letters and Repots to the Leadership" includes a message from Vannikov, Kurchatov and Alexandrov on getting experimental samples of tritium at Industrial Complex No. 817 (today Production Amalgamation "Mayak", Ozersk, Chelyabinsk Region).

Here it is expedient to mention a report of Alexandrov and Kurchatov on start-up and adjustment works on AI-100 reactor in Chelyabinsk-40 and an account on getting lithium carbide. The same section of the book "Nuclear Materials. Nuclear Reactors" contains an account on the work on putting corrosion-resistant in the atmosphere of uranium hexafluoride coatings for a unit for separation of uranium isotopes by the diffusion method. It is well known that this method, worked out under guidance of Acad. Isaak Kikoin, turned out to be the most effective and was applied on the first Soviet industrial unit for isotope enrichment of uranium.

After start-up in 1948 of the first Soviet industrial nuclear reactor at Industrial Complex No. 817, the leadership decided to construct some more units for producing armor plutonium. In 1949, when Alexandrov was appointed supervisor of studies of a new series of industrial reactors, he proposed renovated technical approaches to their elaboration and informed the Special Committee about it in letters and reports. Today these documents are included in the section of the same name in the second volume.

In late 1940s-early 1950s, Alexandrov put forward a number of ideas concerning creation of reactors for the fleet and also experiments in materials science. Thus, in the published letter addressed to Lavrenty Beriya, the curator of the atomic project, written on July 23, 1949, he underlined the necessity to construct a small experimental reactor with a capacity of about 10,000 kW per 1 kg of nuclear fuel for works, connected with the creation of nuclear engine, and solution of other problems. These ideas formed a basis of projects for creation of WR-2 and RFT reactors at LIPAN. The RFT reactor

was put into commission for tasks of materials science in April of 1952. The report on its physical start-up, prepared in cooperation with Kurchatov and a group of employees, is included in the section "Nuclear Materials. Nuclear Reactors".

The second volume contains also the results of studies of materials science in 1952-1956 at IFP and LIPAN (various types of rubber coatings), as well as metal construction materials in special conditions.

The section "Documentary Materials" contains two more sources, which are of interest from the point of view of history of the atomic project: the letters of Beriya of August 19, 1946 (two days later after Alexandrov's appointment as director of the Institute of Physical Problems) with a request to afford an opportunity to Acad. Kapitsa to continue research work at IFP, and of July 24, 1952, on expediency of publication in the central press of an article by Acad. Vladimir Fock "Against Ignorant Criticism of Contemporary Physical Theories" (the latter was signed by Alexandrov together with other outstanding scientists). And if the first letter remained without consequences, the second one, supported by Kurchatov, was apprehended by the country leadership, realizing that without high-class physicists no atomic bomb can be made. This helped physical science avoid utter defeat, as genetics in 1948 at the session of VASKhNIL. It can be stated that due to their role in solving the atomic project, physicists passed heavy times without losses.

In 2013 we are planning to publish the third, fourth and fifth volumes, but even today we can tell our readers about materials to be presented there.

In the years of the Great Patriotic War, Alexandrov headed works on degaussing ships of the USSR Navy, begun in pre-war years. It was at his laboratory that a method for their protection was proposed. The devices, worked out at LFTI, minimized the Navy losses, guaranteed its fighting efficiency, kept safe hundreds of ships; and thousands of human lives. Materials of that period will open the third volume Atomic Fleet (editor-in-chief Acad. Nikolai Khlopkin).

Among scientific achievements of Alexandrov, a special place is occupied by his contribution to creation of atomic power-plants for the military and civil fleet of the USSR. Tens of institutes, design organizations and industrial enterprises actively participated in imple-

meriting this important and complex task headed by Anatoly Alexandrov. Documentary sources, reflecting this side of the scientist's activity, will make up a basic part of the third volume. It will also include articles, reports, technical assignments, related to the development and construction of new types of marine technology--atomic submarines and ice-breakers, first of all, the first Soviet atomic submarine Leninsky Komsomol and the first in the world atomic ice-breaker Lenin.

In 1955, completely engaged in the work as deputy director of LIPAN, Alexandrov together with Kurchatov devoted his talent and enormous experience to creation of scientific bases of development of national reactor-building. In 1960, after Kurchatov's death, he headed the Institute of Atomic Energy and in the course of three decades remained supervisor of studies of the most important scientific technical programs of the development of atomic power engineering in our country. Articles, accounts, reports at conferences, speeches in mass media on these problems will make up the fourth volume Atomic Power Engineering (editor-in-chief RAS Corresponding Member Viktor Sidorenko).

At the starting point of development of atomic power engineering, the role of scientific supervision was especially great. Due to the lack of knowledge and practical experience, there sprang up a great number of problems, in the solution of which Alexandrov constantly and actively took part. He formed a scientific-technical school, relying on specialists from the Institute and other organizations of the industry, participating in the creation of the first reactor for making armor plutonium and power units for the fleet, attracting young people to the new industry just from the institute.

Under his scientific guidance were made case water-moderated water-cooled power-generating (VVER) and also channel uranium-graphite reactors with a high power (RBMK) for the USSR atomic electric-power stations VVERs function also in a number of foreign countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovakia, Finland and Czechia). Even today they are successfully developing in Russia and abroad. Such stations with reactors of this type are built according to our projects in China, Iran and India.

In the general address at the 7th Conference of the World Energy Congress in 1968 (Moscow), Alexandrov generalized peculiarities of the estimated introduction of nuclear power engineering in the solution of world fuel and energy problems. He consistently propagandized an idea that "nuclear power-engineering will have also an important social significance. Mitigation of keenness of the fuel problem will undoubtedly lead to the reduction of the significance of this problem as a factor of political tension."

The fifth volume Science to the Society. Problems of Organization of Scientific Studies (editor-in-chief Acad. Boris Myasoyedov) will consist of articles and speeches of Alexandrov related to science, materials on the history of the USSR atomic project, activities of a number of outstanding scientists of our country.

Alexandrov's scientific life was closely linked with the USSR Academy of Sciences; in 1953 he became its full member. Two decades later (1975) he was elected President of the USSR AS. Due to his perfect knowledge of national economy, he oriented scientists to a thorough analysis of social-economic problems, timely and wide practical use of scientific achievements at sessions of the General Meeting and the USSR AS Presidium. He had the public approach to his activities, concern for the country's interests and people's welfare. His speeches and articles on a wide spectrum of problems of development of national science and technology, organization of studies and practical application of their results will be included in the final, fifth volume, as well as a complete bibliography of the academician's scientific works.

The Collection contains more than 170 photos from the archives of Alexandrov's family, Kurchatov's Memorial House-Museum and other funds.

Illustrations from the archives of the laboratory of scientific-technical photography of Kurchatov Institute, Alexandrov's family archives and Internet-sources